Madrean Pine-Oak Habitat

1. Habitat Description, Status and Importance

For the purpose of this document, Madrean Pine-Oak habitat refers primarily to the mountain regions of southeastern Arizona below the Mogollon Rim including: the Chiricahua, Santa Rita, Baboquivari, Tumacuacori, Huachuca, Santa Catalina, Pinaleno, and the Pinal Mountains. This group of isolated islands are commonly known as the Madrean Sky Island Archipelago and extend into northern Mexico and New Mexico (Brown 1982). There are approximately 40 sky islands between the Mogollon Rim and the Sierra Madre Occidental in Mexico, all located east of the Sonoran Desert with scattered locations north of Safford. Elevation ranges extend from approximately 1200-2200 m (3980-7250 ft). Precipitation varies seasonally with more than 200 mm (8 in) falling from May through August and an average of 200 mm (8 in) more throughout the year (Brown 1982).

Dominant pine species in the pine-oak woodlands of these isolated mountain islands include Chihuahua, Apache, and Arizona (ponderosa) Pines, alligator bark juniper, and Mexican pinyon, Dominant oak species are Emory, Arizona white, Mexican blue, Gambel, silver-leaf and netleaf (Brown 1982, Kruse and others 1996). The pine-oak regions are interspersed with a mosaic of shrubs, grasses and succulents. Grasses may include side-oats grama, woolspike and cane bluestem (Kruse and others 1996).

The sky islands are inland regions made up of a series of mountains and valleys (Warshall 1994). These mountain islands are separated by valleys of desert and grasslands which create a virtual "sea" of impassable habitat for many species. Conversely, the vertical diversity of the sky islands consists of stacks of biotic communities with a mixture of flora and fauna from the Neotropic/Holarctic and Neotropic/Nearctic, respectively (Walter 1979). The Madrean archipelago also spans three major climactic zones (tropical, subtropical, and temperate) and has relatively high relief (1525 m; 5000 ft) compared to other mountain/valley complexes (Warshall 1994). Marshall (1957) described the pine-oak woodlands as the "heart" of the Madrean archipelago. On most of the island mountains, the pine-oak woodlands sit between the encinal or live oak woodlands and pine forest. This core area is home to several of Arizona’s "priority" bird species including the Buff-breasted Flycatcher, Thick-billed Parrot and the Mexican Spotted Owl.

Although many of the mountain ranges of the sky islands are parallel to each other, and have almost identical habitat characteristics and elevation ranges, bird species do not occur uniformly across the range. Warshall (1994) described how the Mexican chickadee is resident in the Chiricahua Mountains but has never been found in the Pinalenos only 55 km (35 mi) away. Why are birds and other animals found on one range and not the other? This question as well as many others are what has made this series of island mountains both a wealth of biodiversity and a mystery to those that study them.

Historical uses that may have modified that natural landscape of the sky island were primarily farming, hunting, fuelwood harvesting and burning (Spoerl and Ravesloot 1994). Current management of the Madrean Archipelago has shifted from the harvesting of resources to ecosystem management that maintains system integrity (DeBano and Ffolliott 1994). A conference on the Biodiversity and Management of the Madrean Sky Island Archipelago, encouraged that institutional barriers be eliminated and that more efforts of international cooperation be encouraged for this region (DeBano and Ffolliott 1994). Coordinated efforts between the United States and Mexico were initiated in a formalized partnership between the Arizona Game and Fish Department (AGFD) and the Centro Ecológico de Sonora (CES) in 1993. This partnership has created opportunities for field work, training, technical assistance and financing for wildlife management and conservation in Sonora and adjacent lands in Arizona (Abarca and others 1994). Many other agencies and organizations have since come forward with funding for conservation of these resources.

2. Species Descriptions, Objectives and Recommendations

Below are detailed descriptions for each priority bird species in madrean pine-oak habitat. A table at the end of the Madrean Pine-Oak section highlights species habitat needs in a quick reference format (Table 12).

Montezuma (Mearns’) Quail (Cyrtonyx montezumae mearnsi)

Associated Species: Other species that may use similar habitat components or respond positively to management for the Montezuma Quail are: Eastern (Azure) Bluebird, Rufous-crowned Sparrow, Canyon Towhee.

Distribution: Montezuma Quail breeding range extends northward from southern, central, and northern Mexico into the United States to the mountains of southwest Texas, southwest New Mexico, and southeast Arizona. In Arizona, birds are most numerous in southern part of the state in the Baboquivari, San Luis, Parjarito, Atascosa, Tumacacori, Santa Rita, Patagonia, Huachuca, Chiricahua, and Peloncillo mountains, with lesser numbers in the Mule and Whetstone mountains. This species can also be found with some regularity below the Mogollon Rim in the areas of Eagle Creek, Blue River, San Francisco River, Black River, and the White River (Brown 1989). Occasionally, they have been found in areas up to 3050 m (10,000 ft) on Escudilla Mountain, Green’s Peak, and Mount Baldy (Phillips, and others 1964).

Ecology: Montezuma Quail begin pairing in late February and March (Yeager 1966, 1967). Males attract females during the pairing period through the use of "buzz" calls. During this time, some fighting occurs between males. Male territories may not be fully established until May or June (Bishop 1964). Actual nesting does not begin until late June, July, or even August. The nesting period closely coincides with the onset of the summer rains. Nests are constructed in dense grass cover and are protected from the elements either by overhanging cover of a tree or tall grasses (Wallmo 1954). Although nest sites can range from cool, moist canyon bottoms to hot arid slopes, dense grass cover is characteristic at most sites. The egg hatching period can range from late July to late September with a peak in early to mid-August (Brown 1989). The chicks immediately leave the nest to forage with their parents. The brood is reared by both parents. Daily activities are usually limited to foraging and roosting within a home range of about 15 acres (Brown 1978). Montezuma Quail feed exclusively on the ground predominantly on bulbs and tubers, particularly the bulbs of wood sorrel and tubers of flat sedges. Other foods include a wide variety of forb (e.g. lupine, spurge, milk pea) and grass (e.g. paspalum) seeds, particularly those which set seed after the summer rains. These plant species provide the bulk of the quails yearlong food supply on which it depends (Brown 1989).

Habitat Requirements: Montezuma Quail habitat in Arizona is comprised predominately of Madrean evergreen woodlands of oaks and pines. The typical landscape is open woodland containing Emory oak, Mexican blue oak, Arizona oak, and less commonly gray oak, Toumey oak, alligator juniper and one-seed juniper. The understory is typically comprised of bunchgrasses such as sideoats grama, cane beardgrass, wolftail, sprangletop, and Texas bluestem (Brown 1989). Optimum habitat has a tree crown cover of about 30 percent with a lush understory of grasses and forbs (Brown 1982). These habitats have a warm temperate climate in which freezing temperatures do not normally occur more than 125 to 150 nights during the year. Summer precipitation is an essential component of Montezuma Quail habitat. The summer rainfall pattern is of key importance in producing the grasses and forbs that provide the food and cover (e.g. nesting cover) for this species. A mean of 10 inches or more precipitation during July through September is needed to produce dense nesting cover and food sources for successful reproduction and survival. Montezuma Quail are also found in riparian communities, occasionally ponderosa pine forests, and more rarely in subalpine forests and meadows. In these situations, the presence of dense bunchgrasses along with sedges and bulbs are also important (Brown 1989).

Habitat and/or Population Objectives:

Population Objective

1. Maintain a stable or increasing population trend with evaluations in ten year increments, beginning in 1999.

2. Maintain at least the current distribution in Arizona.

Habitat Strategy

1. Maintain current habitat in optimal condition as described in habitat requirements.

2. Provide corridors of habitat that allow appropriate cover for dispersal between patches of suitable habitat.

IMPLEMENTATION RECOMMENDATIONS AND OPPORTUNITIES

Management Issues with Conservation Recommendations

Overgrazing of understory grasses and forbs which provide food and cover for Montezuma Quail is the major management issue affecting this species (Brown 1989, Brown 1982). Investigators have agreed that livestock can adversely affect the distribution and density of Montezuma Quail through the destruction of food resources and nesting cover, and that the species has disappeared from heavily grazed areas (Leopold and McCabe 1957, Miller 1943, O’Connor 1939, Wallmo 1954). Management recommendations for Montezuma Quail should be related to the amount of rain fall each year, with grazing and hunting being limited more during years of low rainfall. Loss of the grass component of pine-oak woodlands would be detrimental to Montezuma quail. Using fire to maintain grass and control shrubs from becoming too dense is suggested.

Montezuma Quail management issues are listed in italics. Below each issue are the Arizona Partners in Flight Conservation Recommendations.

Grazing

1. Review current grazing guidelines and adjust management where necessary.

2. Adjust grazing duration and intensity annually depending on rainfall, and reduce or refrain in dry years to ensure necessary quail habitat is not eliminated.

Fire

1. Only low intensity, patchy fire when necessary to maintain grass component and control shrub component.

EVALUATION OF ASSUMPTIONS: RESEARCH AND MONITORING

Recommended Research

1. Gather information on annual precipitation and breeding success rates and population numbers.

2. Develop a (non-lethal) census method.

3. Study the grazing and hunting effects on population level.

4. Study fire effects on population level.

Band-tailed Pigeon (Columba fasciata)

Associated Species: Other species that may use similar habitat components or respond positively to management for the Band-tailed Pigeon are: Northern Goshawk, Flammulated Owl, Whiskered Screech-Owl, Northern Pygmy-Owl, Acorn Woodpecker, Hairy Woodpecker, Northern Flicker, Steller’s Jay, Mexican Chickadee, Yellow-rumped Warbler, Grace’s Warbler, Red-faced Warbler, Olive Warbler, Western Tanager and Scott’s Oriole.

Distribution: The Band-tailed Pigeon ranges from extreme southern Alaska, through the mountains of British Columbia and the Pacific Northwest southward through the Coast Ranges, Cascades and Sierra Nevada, the Rocky Mountains through the mountains of southeastern Arizona, the Sierra Madre Occidental of Mexico south through the mountains of Central and South America at least to southern Ecuador.

In Arizona, the interior race of the Band-tailed Pigeon Columba fasciata fasciata is a fairly common summer resident in mountains from northwestern to southeastern Arizona. Most Band-tailed Pigeons of the interior race winter in Mexico primarily in the pine-oak woodlands of the Sierra Madre Occidental (Tacha 1994).

Ecology: Pair bonds usually form early in the spring and pairs remain together through the nesting season. One egg is normally laid in a stick nest. Two or more broods may be raised each year apparently depending on food availability. Band-tailed Pigeons may nest opportunistically depending on food resources. They can be semi-colonial and are gregarious away from the nesting area (Ehrlich and others 1988). Some of their primary food choices are acorns, mulberries, elderberries, currents and pine seeds.

Throughout the northern and western portions of its Arizona range, the Band-tailed Pigeon is present generally from May through October but may, in good years at least, be resident in central and southeastern Arizona (Monson and Phillips 1981). Spring migration may begin as early as March and Fall migration in September. Banding studies have shown that Band-tailed Pigeons have high site fidelity to nesting areas (Tacha 1994). Nests usually are located in conifers 4-12 m (15-40 ft) above ground (Tacha 1994) although some nests are constructed at the fork of a low horizontal limb in oaks (Fowler, in Bent 1932). Like nests of other members of the dove family, the nest is loosely constructed of twigs. Nesting may occur at the edge of dense forest, at the heads of canyons or in open forest habitats.

Habitat Requirements: Band-tailed Pigeons nest in forested areas and feed primarily in oak forest and meadows primarily on acorns and berry crops such as manzanita, madrone and elderberry. Dependent on oaks, they are rare in pure ponderosa forest. The Arizona distribution, for this reason, is considered patchy (Monson and Phillips 1981).

Habitat and/or Population Objectives:

Population Objective

1. Achieve an increasing population trend and maintain the current distribution.

Habitat Strategy

1. Maintain current habitat quantity, quality and distribution.

2. Limit prescribed burns especially in cases where berry producing shrubs such as manzanita and madrone occur.

Population Strategy

1. Review hunting bag limits and season dates annually, to adjust to data gathered regarding harvest, surveys and recruitment.

IMPLEMENTATION RECOMMENDATIONS AND OPPORTUNITIES

Management Issues with Conservation Recommendations

Western populations of Band-tailed Pigeons have declined over the past 30 years but trends of the interior populations are not well understood (Tacha 1994). Earlier population declines appear to have been noticed from hunting harvest data. As a result, a season reduction and thus harvest reduction was secured (Tacha 1994). Other declines are thought to be due to habitat loss. Clear-cutting of old growth forests and herbicide use to control understory species in tree plantations are considered primary factors (Tacha 1994). Management of the interior population (Four Corners population) is shared by New Mexico, Arizona, Colorado, Utah and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. The Pacific Flyway Study Committee annually reviews harvest figures and adjusts season frameworks for harvest for this population. The draft management plan of 1998 identifies objectives to develop indices for population status, trends and annual recruitment as well as investigations of food habits, mineral requirements and specific habitat needs. Information on mortality factors such as disease and hunting are needed. There have been comparatively few recent studies on this species and research is considered a primary need (Tacha 1994).

Band-tailed pigeon management issues are listed in italics. Below each issue are the Arizona Partners in Flight Conservation Recommendations.

Hunting

1. Since population numbers fluctuate with food availability and nesting success, hunting season should continue to be delayed until most of the young are fledged.

 

Silvicultural Practices

1. Avoid clear cut timber harvest of oaks.

Fire

1. Keep fuel loads to a minimum to avoid catastrophic fires but maintain the berry-producing shrubs.

EVALUATION OF ASSUMPTIONS: RESEARCH AND MONITORING

Recommended Research

1. Determine current population numbers (surveys and monitoring).

2. Determine the specific habitat needs for this species (in Pine-Oak).

3. Monitor species in areas with and without salvage logging to determine effects.

 

Thick-billed Parrot (Rhynchopsitta pachyrhyncha)

Associated Species: Other species that may use similar habitat components or respond positively to management for the Thick-billed Parrot are: Cooper’s Hawk, Apache Goshawk, Northern Pygmy-Owl, Steller’s Jay, Mexican Chickadee, Pygmy Nuthatch, Grace’s Warbler, and Olive Warbler.

Distribution: The Thick-billed Parrot occurred historically as far north as southeastern Arizona and southwestern New Mexico, but its primary range is from the Sierra Madre Occidental of Mexico south as far as Michoacan. The last historic records for a United States population were in 1938 in the Chiricahua National Monument and in 1964 in the Animas Mountains of New Mexico (Snyder and others 1994). While no breeding records exist for the historic United States population, the species was apparently an annual resident of the Chiricahua Mountains at the turn of the century and may have bred there. The population that currently exists in Mexico is considered endangered, although breeding parrots can still be found just 80 km (50 mi) from the United States border. The species’ main breeding range is in western Chihuahua and eastern Sonora south into central Durango. In winter, the birds normally range from Durango southward. Releases of wild-caught birds in Arizona from 1986-1993 resulted in some breeding and reasonably good survival, but the released population is not considered self-sustaining as yet. Released birds have ranged form the southeastern mountains as far north as the Mogollon Rim country. No good population estimate is available for the birds in Mexico, but Lammertink and others (1996) have offered a rough estimate of 500-2000 pairs.

Ecology: The Thick-billed Parrots is a cavity nesting, temperate-adapted parrot species that feeds mainly on pine cones, but also takes acorns, buds of conifers, and other foods in lesser amounts. They breed late in the year (normally July to October) presumably to take advantage of the timing of the fruiting of conifers. Most nests are in old flicker holes or in natural cavities in conifer snags. They generally travel in flocks and often exhibit V-formations and line formations in flight. Thick-bills nest only at high elevations, above 2000 m (6550 ft), and normally roost at similar elevations. Several raptors pose a threat to the Thick-billed Parrot including: Red-tailed Hawk (Buteo jamaicensis), Northern Goshawk (Accipiter gentilis), and Peregrine Falcon (Falco peregrinus), but they also suffer predation at the roosts and nests from ring-tailed cats (Bassariscus astutus)

Habitat Requirements: The Thick-billed Parrot is dependent on mature high-elevation conifer forests, both for food and nest sites. Primary foods in the breeding season include southwestern white pine, Arizona pine, and Durango pine, which are all high elevation species. They can persist in partially degraded forests, as long as snags are still present for nesting and enough big trees persist to offer an adequate cone base for food. Population density studies show a strong relationship to the maturity of forests.

Habitat and/or Population Objectives:

Population Objective

1. To establish one stable population in the historic range in Arizona by 2010.

Habitat Strategy

1. Maintain mature pine oak forests (with pines >75 yr or cone producing) within historical range.

Population Strategy

1. Coordinate with Mexico on increasing their population to provide birds for reintroduction in Arizona.

IMPLEMENTATION RECOMMENDATIONS AND OPPORTUNITIES

Management Issues with Conservation Recommendations

In Mexico, Thick-billed Parrots are threatened by cutting of old growth forests, and to some extent by illegal harvest for the pet trade and aviculture. In the United States, the historic population was stressed heavily by shooting (Snyder and others 1994). Efforts are now underway to protect some crucial forest areas in Mexico from further cutting, but the prospects of success are unsure. Release efforts in the United States were sufficiently encouraging to merit a follow-up, but confiscated and captive-reared birds are not advisable for the release due to disease and behavioral problems (mainly for captive-reared birds). Future releases should involve wild-caught birds deliberately translocated to Arizona without exposure to exotic disease problems if the appropriate source population can be identified.

Thick-billed Parrot management issues are listed in italics. Below each issue are the Arizona Partners in Flight Conservation Recommendations.

Habitat loss/alteration

1. Help Mexico boost their populations, and protect existing habitat.

2. Protect existing suitable habitat in Arizona for potential reintroduction.

EVALUATION OF ASSUMPTIONS: RESEARCH AND MONITORING:

Recommended Research

1. Determine the migratory habits of wild populations.

2. Study the possibility and feasibility of brood manipulations (i.e. removing young early in nesting stage, captive rearing them, and then returning them at a later stage).

3. Determine if Goshawks are a threat to Thick-billed Parrots in Mexico.

4. Determine if a migrant or a resident population is more likely to survive a second reintroduction in Arizona.

5. Develop methods for translocation of wild-caught birds that will not put the source population at risk.

 

Mexican Spotted Owl (Strix occidentalis lucida)

Associated Species: Other species that may use similar habitat components or respond positively to management for the Mexican Spotted Owl are: Northern Goshawk, Whiskered Screech-Owl, Whip-poor-will, Strickland’s Woodpecker, Virginia’s Warbler, Red-faced Warbler, Painted Redstart and Hepatic Tanager.

Distribution: The Mexican Spotted Owl is distributed over a broad geographic area in the southwestern United States. However, it is not uniformly distributed throughout its range. It occurs in disjunct locations that correspond to isolated mountain systems and canyons in southern Utah, Colorado, Arizona, New Mexico, and Mexico. In Arizona, it primarily occurs in mixed conifer and ponderosa pine-Gambel oak forests and canyons above and below the Mogollon Rim, and in the Madrean pine-oak forests and canyons of the sky island mountain ranges in the southern part of the state (Block and others 1995).

Ecology: The owl, described as a "perch and pounce" predator, primarily consumes small to medium-sized rodents such as woodrats, peromyscid mice, and microtine voles. It also preys on bats, birds, reptiles, and arthropods (Forsman 1976, Ward and Block 1995). This species nests on cliff ledges, stick nests built by other bird, and in tree cavities (Ganey 1988, Fletcher and Hollis 1994). Females normally lay one to three eggs in late March or early April and incubate for approximately 30 days. The eggs usually hatch in early May. Nestling owls generally fledge in four to five weeks after hatching in early to mid-June (Ganey 1988). Fledgling dispersal occurs usually from mid-September to early October. Predation by avian predators (e.g. Great Horned Owls, Northern Goshawks) and starvation from low abundance and availability of prey species are primary mortality factors (Ganey 1988). Seasonal movement patterns are variable. Some are year-round residents, some show shifts in habitat-use patterns, and some migrate short distances (i.e. 19-49 km; 12-31 mi) during the winter. Home ranges are also variable ranging from 261-1550 ha (645-3831 ac). During the nesting season most activity (i.e. nesting/roosting and foraging) occurs within an "activity center" of approximately 242 ha (600 ac) (Block and others 1995).

Habitat Requirements: In northern portions of the range, including southern Utah, southern Colorado, far northern Arizona and New Mexico, owls occur primarily in steep walled rocky canyons with conifer inclusions (Rinkevich 1991, Willey 1993). Along the Mogollon Rim in Arizona and New Mexico, primary habitat use is within mixed conifer forests, ponderosa pine-Gambel oak forests, rocky canyons, and associated riparian forests (Fletcher and Hollis 1994). In southern Arizona and Mexico, Madrean pine-oak forests and canyons provide primary habitat for the owl (Duncan and Taiz 1992, Ganey and Balda 1989). Forest stands used for roosting and nesting often contain mature to old-growth stand characteristics. The forest stands are typically uneven-aged, multistoried, have dense canopy cover, and contain large diameter trees, snags, and downed logs (Block and others 1995).

Habitat and/or Population Objectives:

Population Objectives:

1. Maintain current distribution in montane conifer forests in AZ (ponderosa pine with a Gambel’s oak, Madrean pine/oak, and mixed conifer).

2. Follow population and habitat objectives for each Recovery Unit as outlined in the Mexican Spotted Owl Recovery Plan (USFWS 1995).

Habitat Strategy

1. Use existing habitat recommendations in the Mexican Spotted Owl Recovery Plan with the most updated Recovery Team recommendations.

2. For specific management recommendations by recovery unit and by habitat type, refer to the Mexican Spotted Owl Recovery Plan:

USDI Fish and Wildlife Service. 1995. Recovery plan for the Mexican spotted owl: Vol.I. Albuquerque, New Mexico. 172 pp.

IMPLEMENTATION RECOMMENDATIONS AND OPPORTUNITIES

Management Issues and Conservation Recommendations

Timber harvest, particularly even-age management, and catastrophic fire over large forested areas are the primary management concerns which can adversely alter owl habitat through habitat fragmentation and the reduction in mature and old-growth forest characteristics (i.e. key for roosting and nesting). In addition, livestock and ungulate grazing (e.g. alteration of prey/nesting/roosting habitat) and recreation (e.g. disturbance to nesting birds) are other key management issues. Management guidelines in the 1995 Mexican Spotted Owl Recovery Plan, and Block and others 1995, focus on protection and maintenance of nesting/roosting habitat, maintenance of habitat for prey species, and limiting of disturbance during the nesting season.

Mexican Spotted Owl management issues are listed in italics. Below each issue are the Arizona Partners in Flight Conservation Recommendations.

Silvicultural Practices

1. Manage forests for uneven forest structure.

2. Follow silvicultural guidelines in the Mexican Spotted Owl Recovery Plan.

Fire

1. Light burning of fuel buildup in Protected Activity Centers (PAC’s) only during nonbreeding season and as described in Protected Activity Center guidelines in the Mexican Spotted Owl Recovery Plan. (USFWS 1995).

2. Implement a fire abatement program to allow treatment of fuel build-up and avoid catastrophic fire. (USFWS 1995).

Human Disturbance

1. No construction of buildings, roads or trails in PACs during breeding season (USFWS 1995).

2. Construction of buildings, roads or trails in PACs during non-breeding season considered on a case-specific basis (USFWS 1995).

3. Seasonal closures of specifically designated recreation activities should be considered in extreme circumstances (USFWS 1995).

Grazing

1. Monitor grazing use by livestock to determine any changes in the relative composition of herbaceous and woody plants to maintain habitat for owls and their prey (USFWS 1995).

2. Implement and enforce grazing utilization standards that attain good to excellent range use standards (USFWS 1995).

3. Protect or restore riparian communities, emphasizing protected and restricted areas (USFWS 1995).

EVALUATION OF ASSUMPTIONS: RESEARCH AND MONITORING

Recommended Research

1. Research the "floater" (new generation) individuals, to determine if there is habitat nearby that they use, or whether they disperse great distances.

2. Investigate management strategies that may reduce the possibility of catastrophic fire, but maintain important habitat components (USFWS 1995).

3. Investigate effects of recreation vehicles, etc. on sites used by owls (USFWS 1995).

4. Investigate how grazing affects the prey base in habitats used by spotted owls (USFWS 1995).

 

Buff-breasted Flycatcher (Empidonax fulvifrons)

Associated Species: Other species that may use similar habitat components or respond positively to management for the Buff-breasted Flycatcher are: Northern Goshawk (Apache), Strickland’s Woodpecker, Greater Pewee, Western Wood-Pewee, Mexican Jay, Plumbeous Vireo, Hutton’s Vireo, and Grace’s Warbler.

Distribution: Currently, this small flycatcher's breeding range extends from southeastern Arizona south locally and intermittently through the Sierra Madres and adjacent mountain ranges of Mexico with disjunct populations south to central Honduras (AOU 1983, Howell and Webb 1995). The Buff-breasted Flycatcher historically occurred north to central Arizona near Prescott and east to Fort Apache and west-central New Mexico (Hubbard 1970, Phillips and others 1964). Since 1980, it has been documented nesting in the United States only very locally in the Chiricahua, Huachuca, Santa Rita, and Santa Catalina mountains of southeastern Arizona (Bowers and Dunning 1994, Morrison and Martin 1997). Populations in Arizona, northern Sonora and western Chihuahua withdraw south during the winter, otherwise, winter range is basically the same as breeding (AOU 1983, Bowers and Dunning 1994). Some populations may move to adjacent habitats at lower elevation during the winter (Bowers and Dunning 1994).

Ecology: Spring arrival of Buff-breasted Flycatchers in Arizona begins as early as late March, peaking in April, with stragglers through mid-May. As expected, insects make up the diet of this species, which include ants, wasps, true bugs, beetles, grasshoppers, moths, and spiders (Bowers and Dunning 1994, Cottam and Knappen 1939). It captures prey items in flight, using short sallies from tree branches, bushes, or weed stems. Buff-breasted Flycatchers often fly to the ground to take ants and other insects (Bowers and Dunning 1994). Nesting activity in Arizona has been documented from early May (rarely as early as 10 April) through mid-August (Bowers and Dunning 1994, Morrison and Martin 1997). Mean average nest height is 8 m (25 ft) with a range of 2-14 m (7-46 ft) (Bowers and Dunning 1994, Morrison and Martin 1997). In Arizona, most nests are constructed in Apache and Chihuahua pines, with significantly fewer found in ponderosa pine, alligator juniper, Arizona sycamore, Arizona white oak, and Douglas-fir (Bowers and Dunning 1994, Morrison and Martin 1997). Many nests are constructed under overhanging branch or other cover. This may reduce heat lost from the incubating bird at night (Bowers and Dunning 1984), act as rain shelters, and/or deter nest parasitism by cowbirds (Morrison and Martin 1997). Pairs in Arizona continue nesting attempts until successful or until it is too late in season to nest. A few pairs have been noted initiating five nests in one season (Bowers and Dunning 1994, Morrison and Martin 1997). There is usually no second clutch if the first nesting attempt proves to be successful (Bowers and Dunning 1994). Fall migration in Arizona is from mid-August through late September (Bowers and Dunning 1994).

Habitat Requirements: During migration and winter, the Buff-Breasted Flycatcher is sometimes found in lowland riparian habitats. It breeds in wide mountain canyons with open growth of pines and/or oaks, usually with open understory of grasses and small trees or burned forest with patches of living pines (Bowers and Dunning 1994). In Arizona, typical tree species include Chihuahuan, Apache, ponderosa, and southwestern white pines; alligator juniper; pinyon pine; Douglas-fir; Arizona sycamore; and Arizona white and silverleaf oaks. In Arizona, nesting has been documented at elevations that range from 1950-2850 m (6411-9350 ft) (Bent 1942, Bowers and Dunning 1994); down to 600 m (1968 ft) in Honduras (Monroe 1968). Morrison and Martin (1997) describe optimal breeding habitat for Buff-Breasted Flycatchers in Arizona as having a relatively gradual slope (about 10%), and open forest. They define an open forest as having canopy cover 20% above 10 m (33 ft), 20% cover at 5-10 m (16-33 ft), and <10% cover below 5 m (16 ft). Typical canopy species are Apache and Chihuahua pine of medium-age structural stage (trees 30-45 cm; 12-18 in dbh) or older (Morrison and Martin 1997). These forests should have an open understory of oak, with about 80-85 small oaks (10-20 cm; 4-8 in dbh) per hectare (2.5 ac), and oak canopy cover of about 1% at 0-1 m (0-3 ft), about 5% at 1-2 m (3-7 ft), about 15% at 2-5 m (7-16 ft), about 9% at 5-10 m (16-33 ft), and negligible above 10 m (33 ft). Ideally, these forest patches should be >150 m (492 ft) wide, because larger patches of forest tend to promote greater reproductive success and higher probability of occupancy (Morrison and Martin 1997).

Habitat and/or Population Objectives:

Population Objective

1. Maintain a stable or increasing population trend and current distribution.

Habitat Strategy

1. Protect known breeding locations from recreational development.

2. Manage habitat for open understory of oaks and a grassy herbaceous layer.

IMPLEMENTATION RECOMMENDATIONS AND OPPORTUNITIES

Management Issues with Conservation Recommendations

Concerns include breeding habitat loss and modification by recreational development and unregulated livestock grazing. In many areas, fire suppression has created unfavorable breeding conditions through increased density of understory vegetation (Morrison and Martin 1997). Fire suppression has also caused catastrophic fires which have consumed historical breeding locations. Artificially elevated densities of jays near U.S. Forest Service campgrounds increases nest predation of nearby populations of Buff-breasted Flycatchers (Morrison and Martin 1997). It has been suggested that intense birding pressures (e.g. daily visits, tape playing) could be detrimental to the nesting success of local populations in southeastern Arizona (Bowers and Dunning 1994, Morrison and Martin 1997). Information on wintering ecology and status of this species in Mexico and Central America is almost entirely lacking. This may be because high-elevation forests in Mexico have been heavily logged in the past and are presently subject to overgrazing (Bowers and Dunning 1994).

Buff-breasted Flycatcher management issues are listed in italics. Below each issue are the Arizona Partners in Flight Conservation Recommendations.

Fire

1. Encourage periodic, low intensity ground fires to control growth of understory woody species.

Predation

1. Monitor campgrounds where jays are common.

2. Inform campers about how feeding jays near campgrounds may increase nest predation of Buff-breasted Flycatchers by attracting them to nest areas. Put up informative signs.

Over Grazing

1. Suggest only light and limited seasonal grazing to avoid elimination of herbaceous layer and maintain moderate shrub layer.

Recreation

1. Educate birders that tape playbacks and daily visits have a negative impact on nesting success of many bird species, including Buff-breasted Flycatchers.

2. Avoid development of campgrounds in known breeding locations.

EVALUATION OF ASSUMPTIONS: RESEARCH AND MONITORING

Recommended Research

1. Conduct more surveys in adjacent mountain ranges.

 

Eastern (Azure) Bluebird (Sialia sialis fulva)

Associated Species: Other species that may use similar habitat components or respond positively to management for the Eastern (Azure) Bluebird are: Northern Goshawk (Apache), Acorn Woodpecker, Strickland’s Woodpecker, Northern Flicker, Bridled Titmouse, White-breasted Nuthatch, Montezuma Quail, Black-throated Gray Warbler, Hutton’s Vireo, Ash-throated Flycatcher and Scott’s Oriole.

Distribution: This subspecies of the Eastern Bluebird is a year-round resident from south-central Arizona (Santa Rita, Pajaritos, and Huachuca mountains) south along the Sierra Madre Occidental to Guerrero (AOU Checklist 1957). During breeding, it is found in the mountains of southern Arizona south to Jalisco, Oaxaco and Vera Cruz (Bent 1949 from AOU Checklist 1931). Monson (1981) lists the following areas for breeding: Huachuca Mountains west to the Pajaritos; the Chiricahua Mountains; Happy Valley east of the Rincon Mountains in Pima and Cochise Counties; and at Bear Canyon in the Santa Catalina Mountains. Recently, (1993, ’94, ’96 and ’97) in both Pima and Cochise Counties, breeding has been confirmed through the Arizona Breeding Bird Atlas Project.

Ecology: The Azure Bluebird is a resident of southeastern Arizona and essentially non-migratory (Monson 1981). It is an occasional cooperative breeder-- young from previous broods help at the parent’s nest (Ehrlich and others 1988). Frugivorous and insectivorous, its diet includes earthworms, snails, and other invertebrates as well as berries. The young are fed primarily insects, which are caught "on the wing" by the adults. In the winter, berries are the most important food source (Ehrlich and others 1988). Bluebirds are secondary cavity nesters, often using woodpecker-excavated holes, but will also use crevices, cracks and natural cavities in trees and rocks. Nests consist of a loose cup of grass, weed stems, pine needles, and twigs, occasionally with hair or feathers (DeGraaf and Rappole 1995, Ehrlich and others 1988, Phillips and others 1964). As a cavity nester, it is a rare cowbird host (Ehrlich and others 1988, Woodward 1979).

Habitat Requirements: The Azure Bluebird is found at elevations of 1000-2000 m (3280-6560 ft) in the pine-oak forests of southeastern Arizona (Monson and Phillips 1981, Phillips and others 1964). It has also been found at lower elevations, nesting in cottonwoods at Patagonia, Arizona, but not in recent years (Monson and Phillips 1981, T. Corman, pers. observ.). Oaks are the primary tree species utilized, including Emory, Arizona white, silverleaf and Mexican Blue oaks mixed with some Apache and Chihuahua pine. They frequent areas of open canopy with scattered trees, forest edges, and burned or cut-over woodlands (DeGraaf and Rappole 1995). The mid- understory is open and ground cover is mainly forbs and grasses with low foliage and stem densities. Snag density is high, as the species is a secondary cavity nester and uses mature to late succession forest patches for both foraging and nesting. During winter, small flocks may wander from breeding areas and can sometimes be found in the Tucson area, but usually remain in the mountains (Monson 1981, Russell and Monson 1998).

Habitat and/or Population Objectives:

Population Objective

1. Maintain or increase current population numbers and distribution and allow for population expansion into restored habitats.

IMPLEMENTATION RECOMMENDATIONS AND OPPORTUNITIES

Management Issues with Conservation Recommendations

The distribution of this subspecies across the landscape is patchy and localized, but may have always been so, as this excerpt from Swarth (1914) in Bent (1949) indicates "rare in summer in the high mountains of extreme southern Arizona, not of common occurrence in either of these mountain ranges where S. Mexicana bairdi [Western Bluebird] is the common breeding bluebird". Adults require low perches for hawking and catching insects near the ground (Ehrlich and others 1988). Nest cavities are also low, often within meters of the ground (Russell and Monson 1998). An abundance of snags are needed for nesting, therefore uncontrolled fuelwood cutting and the taking of larger trees results in loss of nesting substrates. Felling dead trees and removing dead branches decreases availability of cavities and low perches and increases competition with other cavity nesting species (Ehrlich and others 1988). Ligon (1969) also suggests that the availability of cavities may limit this species, possibly because they begin breeding activities later than other cavity nesters.

Because this species is insectivorous, mainly aerial, loss of grasses and forbs due to heavy grazing pressure may result in lowered food supply, although light grazing may enhance habitat by decreasing the shrub layer (Ligon 1969). Where both fire and grazing have been excluded, heavy undergrowth and dense foliage may be responsible for the scarcity of this bird (Ligon 1969). In open park-like forests of northern Mexico, the bluebird is more common (Marshall 1963 in Ligon 1969). Ligon (1969), referring to the Southwestern Research Station in the Chiricahua Mountains, reported that "heavy grazing by cattle near the research station has destroyed much of the undergrowth, producing a more open woodland than is found in areas where both fire and cattle have been excluded". This information was collected in 1965 and it is uncertain if this population of bluebirds is still present at the research station, although they are seen occasionally and in small numbers in the surrounding areas.

Management should include low intensity fires which will: 1) "fire prune" oaks, thus making them less susceptible to larger wildfires; 2) result in a mosaic of vegetation; 3) be of such an intensity to maintain openness of habitat, allowing more growth of forbs and grasses; and 4) decrease shrub layer. Research needs include determination of tree size needed for nesting, cavity size and availability, including identification of competitors (starlings?), and cavity height requirements (much of this information is known for the bluebirds in the eastern United States, but research comparing the needs of this subspecies is lacking). Nest box programs have been very successful in the eastern United States for bluebirds, but their use in the West is not common. Ligon (1969) reported that within two days of placement of a nest box, it was occupied by a pair of Azure Bluebirds that successfully reared young from the box. Research is needed on nest box usage to determine if a nest box program should be implemented in certain areas. Since this bird has disappeared from some areas of southeastern Arizona, research on abundance and reproductive success could be useful in determining population centers.

Eastern (Azure) Bluebird management issues are listed in italics. Below each issue are the Arizona Partners in Flight Conservation Recommendations.

Habitat Loss

1. Reduce large scale fuelwood cutting, limit certain size take.

2. Implement a nest box program.

Grazing

1. Encourage only light, seasonal grazing.

Fire

1. Increase prescribed (low intensity) burning to maintain mature, cavity-producing trees.

EVALUATION OF ASSUMPTIONS: RESEARCH AND MONITORING

Recommended Research

1. Nesting information on: tree size, cavity size and availability, including identification of competitors (starlings?), and cavity height requirements.

2. Nest box usage to determine if a nest box program should be implemented in certain areas.

3. Research on abundance and reproductive success could be useful in determining population centers.

 

3. Coordination of Recommendations and Opportunities in Madrean Pine-Oak

Improper or over grazing appears to be a critical management issue for four of the six priority species in pine-oak habitat. Grazing for long periods of time or intense grazing over a short period can eliminate the herbaceous layer. The primary food source for four of the six priority species is found in the herbaceous layer including; insects, forbs, worms, tubers, snails and small mammals. Montezuma Quail are highly dependent on a dense forb and grass layer for food, cover and nesting. Some shrubby component is important for berry production for Band-tailed Pigeons. But, controlling the density of shrubs is recommended to maintain the forb and grass component. Some grazing may be beneficial to help control the shrub layer. However, proper timing and intensity of grazing, perhaps only seasonally, is most important. Using fire to maintain a healthy grass layer and to reduce fuel buildup that may lead to catastrophic fire, is recommended for all priority species.

Human disturbance during the nesting season is most critical for the Mexican Spotted Owl. Specific recommendations advise that no disturbances should occur in Protected Activity Centers (PAC’s) during the nesting season and in some instances during the non-breeding season. Recreation areas can both attract birds, by providing open areas within dense forests, and disturb birds, by providing a place where people congregate that may have otherwise been undisturbed. For Buff-breasted Flycatchers, ironically, it is birders themselves that are known to disrupt them, by playing tapes to "call in" birds for a closer look. Educating birders and other "curious" people about the negative impact tapes can have, especially during the nesting season, is recommended. Recreation areas, especially campgrounds, have resulted in increased predation of Buff-breasted Flycatchers by artificially elevating densities of Jays. Educating campers with informative signs, about the threats to other birds caused by feeding jays, is recommended.

Hunting is not an issue commonly seen for most of our priority species but it played an important role in the status of two of the pine-oak priority species. The Band-tailed Pigeon is still hunted in Arizona. Declines today however, are thought to be more from deforestation rather than from over-hunting. Although bag limits are reviewed each year for Band-tailed Pigeons, more aggressive management of the habitat needs to take place to increase the population of Band-tailed Pigeons in Arizona. The Thick-billed Parrot historically suffered from unregulated and subsistence hunting in Arizona. Massive deforestation of large, cone-bearing trees, the primary food source for Thick-billed parrots, was also a major factor in population declines. These stresses combined with illegal harvest of the remaining birds for the pet trade, wiped the Thick-billed Parrot completely out of Arizona. As with the Band-tailed Pigeon, the issue today is primarily loss of forest habitat, both in Arizona and in Mexico. After an unsuccessful attempt at reintroduction in Arizona in 1986, the focus is now on increasing the existing wild birds remaining in Mexico and protecting existing habitat in Arizona. If population numbers increase sufficiently in Mexico, another reintroduction attempt will likely be made with wild-caught birds, instead of captive-reared birds (as was done the first time) in the near future.

 

Table 12. Madrean Pine-Oak Priority Species and Habitat Needs

Priority Species

Vegetation Composition

Vegetation Structure

Abiotic Factors

Landscape Factors

Buff-breasted Flycatcher -Apache and Chihuahua pines, Arizona pine (ponderosa) -scattered juniper and oak -moderate canopy for nesting, open for foraging

-higher stem density near nest, less important for foraging

-herbaceous ground cover needed for insects

-wide, flat bottom drainages, and top of mesas

-generally low slope,

-elevation 1830-2590 m (6,000-8,500 ft)

-patch size >150 m (490 ft ) wide

-high fragmentation may deter Buff-breasted Flycatcher

-edge effect: negative for nesting; higher predation, positive for foraging

-local, patchy distribution across landscape

- late successional for nesting (with periodic ground fires), mid-succ. for foraging

Mexican Spotted Owl Douglas-fir, Az pine (ponderosa), larger oaks -high closed canopy

-relatively high foliage and stem density for roosting

-cool micro-climate

-steep-sided canyons

-elevation 1160-2590 m (3800-8500 ft)

-aspect often shade-facing

-late, mature to old-growth successional

-need woody/downed debris nearby for prey base

-catastrophic fire very bad

-low intensity fire may be good to reduce continuity of fuel

Eastern (Azure) Bluebird -Mexican blue oak, Emory oak, AZ white oak, silver-leaf, Apache and Chihuahua pine, AZ sycamore -open canopy with space between trees

-low open midstory and an open understory

-ground cover is grass and forbs

-leave or maintain snags, needs cavities

-elevation 1065-2286 m (3500-7500 ft) -patchy/local occurrence across the landscape

-fire good to maintain openness, and allow more forbes

-mature to late successional stage in open stands

Montezuma Quail -Emory oak, blue oak, AZ white oak, native perennial grasses -open oak canopy, but crown cover of >20% is optimal (R.Brown 1982)

low shrubby component

-ground cover perennial grasses, moderately dense

low to moderate stem density in oaks

-foothills to steep slopes, canyons, rolling hills

-may be more on moderate slope than flat areas

-elevation 1250-2285 m (4100-7500 ft)

-wide spread distribution but low density

fire good when low intensity and patchy

-drought affects productivity

-need connecting corridors between suitable habitat

Band-tailed Pigeon -Apache, Chihuahua and Arizona pines, AZ white oak, silver-leaf oak, Emory oak, Gambel oak, alligator-bark juniper -a mixture of mature acorn-producing trees and a shrubby component. -elevation 1371-2590 m (4500-8500 ft) (will go higher outside of pine-oak habitat)

-commonly seen in drainages

-wide spread but local distribution

- drought reduces mast crop of acorns

-medium to late successional for nesting and acorn forage

Thick-billed Parrot -pine (Chihuahuan, Arizona (ponderosa), Apache) -need snags for nesting -elevation 1675-2590 m (5500-8500 ft)

-mountain slopes and canyons (follow food)

- peripheral, primary found in Chiricahua Mts.

-catastrophic fires can cause loss of habitat

-mid-late successional; need cone- bearing trees

 

 

Table 13. Special Factors for Madrean Pine-Oak Priority Species

Priority Species

Special Factors

Buff-breasted Flycatcher -insectivore

-nest frequently in campgrounds because understory is kept relatively open

-brood parasitism low, jay predation high

-often in clumpy groups, may be a factor of habitat

Mexican Spotted Owl -will use several different foraging areas

-use center of activity areas (land managers may want to protect center of activity areas.)

-need small mammal prey base

-need low human disturbance, especially during nesting

-Great Horned Owl is frequent predator

-monogamous and have individual territories

Eastern (Azure) Bluebird -insectivorous, frugivorous

-cavity nesters

Montezuma Quail -dietary needs: tuber roots, acorn, grass seeds, insects

-late nester (July - Sept.), following summer rains and subsequent grass growth

-need specialized techniques to census spp.

Band-tailed Pigeon -eat acorns, mulberries, elderberries currants, pine seeds

-colonial nesting is unusual, will forage in groups of 6-20 individuals (Brown 1989)

-hunting may pose potential threat

Thick-billed Parrot -diet mainly pine nuts

-nomadic

-sensitive to humans - hunting may have contributed to decline

-monogamous

-flocking for foraging